Evolution of Ethics

Ethics photo credit Santa Clara University
[Source photo:Ethics photo credit Santa Clara University]

Latest

Learn about the hidden legacy of Sephardic Jews in Ecuador and their enduring influence

The first chapters of Leviticus, though at first sight seem to suggest no more than a catalog list of sacrifices, are actually a guide to life and to the intention of the Giver of the Law. We have to zoom out of the detailed list of the different categories, the animals or substances used for the sacrifices and in what occasions they are brought, and consider the structure of the list as a key for understanding the purpose of sacrifices. 

The sacrifices can be divided into two clearly distinct groups: those brought from a positive state of mind and those brought because of a negative situation. 

 “Creating gods who can see everything, and who hate cheaters and oath-breakers, turns out to be a good way to reduce cheating and oath-breaking”  

Jonathan Haidt, The Righteous Mind, p. 297 

Positive Sacrifices 

The first category of sacrifices introduced is the burnt-offering or ascent-offering. This is a sacrifice brought by someone of a very high spiritual level. That person is at one with God or with the universe; he has witnessed the beauty of creation and was moved to tears or had a deep religious experience which touched the hidden strings of his very soul. What this person wants to express with his sacrifice is that he is willing to let go of what is important to him in order to show that it is insignificant in comparison with his love and devotion for God. The devotional sacrifice symbolizes his own ascent, as if it were, getting closer to God, doing everything he can do while still alive. There is no sin or transgression, no thanksgiving or personal celebration, just recognition of the burning desire to be close to the Creator. 

The second category is the thanksgiving sacrifice. It is a sacrifice offered in gratitude by the recipient of a Divine favor. Whether he was saved from a great disaster, completed a dangerous journey, or is enjoying blessing and prosperity, one wants to acknowledge that he might not have deserved it and that God has showered him with favors. To be grateful is not easy, especially for men, because it means admitting that one is in a weakness position and on the receiving end, and that is why the verbs confess (התודה) and thank (הודה) in Hebrew are derived from the same 

root (ידה), because saying thank you is in a way a confession, but even with that hint of reluctance, this sacrifice is brought when one is in a positive mood.  

The third category of the Positive Sacrifices is the peace-offering sacrifices, whose name in Hebrew -שלמים, also connotes wholesomeness and completion. These are sacrifices which are brought as a sign of celebration, usually accompanying other, mandatory sacrifices brought during the pilgrimage holidays. The person who offers this sacrifice invites friends and relatives to partake with him, and some of the meat is shared by the priests, thus creating a celebratory atmosphere and a spirit of unity and friendship. 

These sacrifices can also be seen as celebrating the future, the past and the present. The burnt offering is brought with the desire to get closer to God in the future, the thanksgiving sacrifice is in acknowledgement of the past and the peace offering is meant to celebrate the moment.  

Negative Sacrifices 

The first category in this group is the sin-offering, brought for an accidental transgression of one 

of the Torah’s commandments. There is a discussion of the anointed priest, the whole nation, and the chieftain as sinners, as if to show that all are susceptible to commit errors, and only then the sin of an individual is mentioned. Even though a sacrifice is required, since the transgression was a mistake, one is not considered guilty and the Hebrew name of the sacrifice (חטאת) is derived from the root חטא, to miss or to be off the mark. 

The next category is penalty-offering, brought by a person who forgot that he is not allowed to do a certain thing or who is unsure whether he has sinned or not, for example, someone who has witnessed a crime but forgot about it at the time of the trial, resulting in not testifying and maybe altering the outcome of the trial, or someone who touched an impure object and then forgot and touched a pure one or entered the Temple in a state of impurity. In these and similar cases one is held responsible and is called guilty because he should have been more aware of his actions and whereabouts.   

The third category is a penalty for misuse of the Temple’s property, and this time the perpetrator must bring, in addition to the sacrifice, a fine equal to one fifth of the monetary benefit he derived from his transgression. The sin is described here as ‘מעל בקדשי ה, a misuse of the objects dedicated to God, but the term could also be interpreted in Hebrew as referring to an act of treason – מעילה. 

On the Ethical Path 

It is evident that so far, the Torah has described the spiritual state of mind on a descending path, from one who brings a devotional sacrifice to show his closeness to God, through one who thanks God for His benevolence and abundance, to one who he is engaged in celebrating the moment with family and friends. Following these three categories of “positive” sacrifices, the descent continues first by shifting into the “dark side” and discussing sacrifices brought by sinners for atonement or as a penalty. The decline here takes us from the accidental sinner through the criminally negligent to the one whose sin caries a fine besides the sacrifice he must bring. 

All that culminates in the last leg of the section dealing with sacrifices (5:20-26), in which the Torah presents to us the lowliest cases necessitating a sacrifice. We are about to meet the people who are at the bottom rung of the spiritual ladder, after the devout, the grateful, the joyous, the accidental sinner, the criminally negligent, and the penalized sinner. What grave sins will this person have to atone for? For what will he be punished? 

The answer, revealed in the next paragraph should not surprise anyone who is familiar with 

Biblical theology, and especially with the Prophets’ emphasis on social justice, but when it was presented to the Israelites in the desert it must have shocked them and reshaped their value 

system. According to this passage of the Torah the gravest sins, committed at one’s spiritual nadir, are the ones many do not even consider to be part of a religious lifestyle:  

“When a soul sins and misuses God; if a man denied he has received a collateral or a loan, or if he robbed or defrauded another person, or if he has found a lost object and did not return it to its rightful owner.” 

Upon reading these lines we understand that each category of sacrifices mentioned in the opening chapters of Leviticus was a steppingstone, bringing us closer to the realization that sacrifices, commandments, sins and repentance are all leading to one goal. God needs neither sacrifices nor rituals performed in His honor. He does not need us to serve, praise, worship or build tabernacles, temples and synagogues for Him. He wants humans to commit to building a moral and altruistic society, to respect and treat each other with honesty and dignity. 

In that vein, the monetary offender suffers most under the hand of the law: not only must he repay the victim, and not only does he have to pay the victim an additional fine of twenty percent of the damage, but God Himself is enraged with him and he must bring a penalty offering to appease God. The severity of the offense is evident by the omission of one word: whereas misusing funds or property of the temple is described by the words: ‘מעל בקדשי ה, a misuse of 

God’s property, those monetary offenses against others are described as: ‘מעל בה – a misuse, as if it were, of God himself. 

Thus the Torah delivers a very clear message which can be fully comprehended only when looking at the whole picture: the religious, devotional system the Torah presents us with is only the means for cultivating personal growth, heightened spiritual awareness and a reverence of God, which together prepare the naturally selfish, self-absorbed human being, to be more sensitive and caring for the needs of others, even if only by avoiding the negative tendencies of harming, embezzling and defrauding others. 

If I may return to the quote which opened this article, social psychologist Jonathan Haidt argues in The Righteous Mind* that religion is a logical and practical evolutionary development. This is because moral principles anchored in religious beliefs are essential for a healthy society and are especially helpful in overcoming the problem of freeloading, which can undermine the economy and stability of a state or a commune. As a believer, I am glad to embrace this statement, because it means that God has delivered to us, through the Torah, the same message He has delivered to all of humanity through the language of the genetic code.    

*see especially the chapters: The Hive Switch, and Religion is a Team Sport, pp.256-318. 

Resources

Mourner’s Kaddish (Kaddish Yatom), traditionally said by mourners––that is, those who have lost a parent during the previous eleven months or a child, sibling, or spuce during the last thirty days––and by those observing the anniversary of the death of those close relatives. (In many contemporary communities, the full congregation says it in support of the mourners, and in memory of the six million Jews who perished during the Holocaust, assuming that at least one died on any given day.) The mourners Kaddish omits lines 7 and 8 of the Full Kaddish that asks God to answer our prayers, because presumably, God did not grant the mourner’s prayers that the relative recover and live).
אבל: יִתְגַּדַּל וְיִתְקַדַּשׁ שְׁמֵהּ רַבָּא
[קהל: אמן] בְּעָלְמָא דִּי בְרָא כִרְעוּתֵהּ וְיַמְלִיךְ מַלְכוּתֵהּ בְּחַיֵּיכון וּבְיומֵיכון וּבְחַיֵּי דְכָל בֵּית יִשרָאֵל בַּעֲגָלָא וּבִזְמַן קָרִיב, וְאִמְרוּ אָמֵן: [קהל: אמן] קהל ואבל: יְהֵא שְׁמֵהּ רַבָּא מְבָרַךְ לְעָלַם וּלְעָלְמֵי עָלְמַיָּא אבל: יִתְבָּרַךְ וְיִשְׁתַּבַּח וְיִתְפָּאַר וְיִתְרומַם וְיִתְנַשּא וְיִתְהַדָּר וְיִתְעַלֶּה וְיִתְהַלָּל שְׁמֵהּ דְּקֻדְשָׁא. בְּרִיךְ הוּא. [קהל: בריך הוא:] לְעֵלָּא מִן כָּל בִּרְכָתָא בעשי”ת: לְעֵלָּא לְעֵלָּא מִכָּל וְשִׁירָתָא תֻּשְׁבְּחָתָא וְנֶחֱמָתָא דַּאֲמִירָן בְּעָלְמָא. וְאִמְרוּ אָמֵן: [קהל: אמן] יְהֵא שְׁלָמָא רַבָּא מִן שְׁמַיָּא וְחַיִּים עָלֵינוּ וְעַל כָּל יִשרָאֵל. וְאִמְרוּ אָמֵן: [קהל: אמן] עושה שָׁלום בִּמְרומָיו הוּא יַעֲשה שָׁלום עָלֵינוּ וְעַל כָּל יִשרָאֵל וְאִמְרוּ אָמֵן: [קהל: אמן]

וְזֹ֖את הַתּוֹרָ֑ה אֲשֶׁר־שָׂ֣ם מֹשֶׁ֔ה לִפְנֵ֖י בְּנֵ֥י יִשְׂרָאֵֽל׃ תּוֹרָ֥ה צִוָּה־לָ֖נוּ מֹשֶׁ֑ה מוֹרָשָׁ֖ה קְהִלַּ֥ת יַעֲקֹֽב׃ הָאֵל֮ תָּמִ֢ים דַּ֫רְכּ֥וֹ אִמְרַֽת־יְהֹוָ֥ה צְרוּפָ֑ה מָגֵ֥ן ה֝֗וּא לְכֹ֤ל ׀ הַחֹסִ֬ים בּֽוֹ׃

Before reading the Torah:
הַשֵּׁם עִמָּכֶם.
יְבָרֶכְךָ הַשֵּׁם.
 

 .בָּרְכוּ אֶת יְהֹוָה הַמְּבֹרָךְ
.בָּרוּךְ יְהֹוָה הַמְּבֹרָךְ לְעוֹלָם וָעֶד
.בָּרוּךְ יְהֹוָה הַמְּבֹרָךְ לְעוֹלָם וָעֶד

בָּרוּךְ אַתָּה יְהֹוָה, אֱלֹהֵינוּ מֶלֶךְ הָעוֹלָם, אֲשֶׁר בָּחַר בָּנוּ מִכָּל הָעַמִּים וְנָתַן לָנוּ אֶת תּוֹרָתוֹ. בָּרוּךְ אַתָּה יְהֹוָה, נוֹתֵן הַתּוֹרָה:
 אמן.

After reading the Torah:

בָּרוּךְ אַתָּה יְהֹוָה, אֱלֹהֵינוּ מֶלֶךְ הָעוֹלָם, אֲשֶׁר נָתַן לָנוּ אֶת תּוֹרָתוֹ תּוֹרַת אֱמֶת, וְחַיֵּי עוֹלָם נָטַע בְּתוֹכֵנוּ. בָּרוּךְ אַתָּה יְהֹוָה, נוֹתֵן הַתּוֹרָה:
אמן.

Beracha recited before the reading of the Haftara:

Mi Sheberach, the Jewish prayer for healing, is one of the most meaningful prayers in Judaism. It is a public prayer or blessing for an individual or group, most often recited in synagogue when the Torah is being read. 

He who blessed our fathers Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, Moses and Aaron, David and Solomon, may he heal ___ who is ill. May the Holy One, blessed be he, have mercy and speedily restore him to perfect health, both spiritual and physical; and let us say, Amen.

מִי שֶׁבֵּרַךְ אֲבוֹתֵֽינוּ, אַבְרָהָם יִצְחָק וְיַעֲקֹב, משֶׁה וְאַהֲרֹן, דָּוִד וּשְׁלֹמֹה, הוּא יְבָרֵךְ וִירַפֵּא אֶת הַחוֹלֶה ___. הַקָּדוֹשׁ בָּרוּךְ הוּא יִמָּלֵא רַחֲמִים עָלָיו לְהַחֲלִימוֹ וּלְרַפֹּאתוֹ, לְהַחֲזִיקוֹ וּלְהַחֲיוֹתוֹ, וְיִשְׁלַח לוֹ מְהֵרָה רְפוּאָה שְׁלֵמָה, רְפוּאַת הַנֶּֽפֶשׁ וּרְפוּאַת הַגּוּף; וְנֹאמַר אָמֵן.

Tefilat HaDerech (Hebrew: תפילת הדרך), also known as the Traveler’s Prayer or Wayfarer’s Prayer in English, is a prayer for safe travel recited by Jews when traveling by air, sea, or long car trips. It is recited at the start of every journey, preferably standing, but this is not required. It is frequently inscribed on hamsas, which may also include the Shema or Birkat HaBayit prayer.

In the “Blessing of Thanksgiving” (Birkat HaGomel), persons in four different categories should express gratitude to God for His compassion toward them:
One who has done one of the following: a) traveled across the ocean (by an international flight, etc.); b) traversed the desert; c) recovered from a very serious illness; d) been released from prison.
All other potentially fatal circumstances that one escapes, such as a wall crumbling on him, an ox goring him, thieves, auto accidents, etc., fall under the category of desert.

The reader recites:

בָּרוּךְ אַתָּה ה’ אֱלֹהֵינוּ מֶלֶךְ הָעוֹלָם הַגּוֹמֵל לְחַיָּבִים טוֹבוֹת שֶׁגְּמָלַנִי כָּל טוֹב.

 
The congregations responds:

מִי שֶׁגְמַלְךָ כֹּל טוֹב הוּא יִגְמַלְךָ כֹּל טוֹב סֶלָה.

NameSymbolSephardi
Sof passukב׃‎סוֹף פָּסֽוּק‎
Sof pasuk
Etnachtaב֑‎אַתְנָ֑ח‎
Atnaḥ
Segolב֒‎סְגוֹלְתָּא֒‎
Segolta
Shalsheletב֓‎שַׁלְשֶׁ֓לֶת‎
Šalšeleþ
Zakef katanב֔‎זָקֵף קָט֔וֹן‎
Záqéf Qáţown
Zakef gadolב֕‎זָקֵף גָּד֕וֹל‎
Záqéf Ggádowl
Tifchaב֖‎טַרְחָ֖א‎
Tarḥa
Riviaב֗‎רְבִ֗יע‎
Revia
Zarkaב֮‎זַרְקָא֮‎
Zarqa
Pashtaב֙‎קַדְמָא֙‎
Qadma
Shene pashtinב֨‎ב֙‎תְּרֵ֨י קַדְמִין֙‎
Tere qadmin
Yetivב֚‎יְ֚תִיב‎
Yetiv
Tevirב֛‎תְּבִ֛יר‎
Tviyr
Pazerב֡‎פָּזֶר גָּד֡וֹל‎
Pazer gadol
Qarne farahב֟‎קַרְנֵי פָרָ֟ה‎
Qarne farah
Telisha gedolaב֠‎תִּ֠רְצָה‎
Tirtzah
Gereshב֜‎גְּרִ֜ישׁ‎
Gerish
Gershayimב֞‎שְׁנֵי גְרִישִׁ֞ין‎
Shene gerishin
Munachב׀‎פָּסֵ֣ק׀‎
Paseq
Merchaב֥‎מַאֲרִ֥יךְ‎
Maarich
Munachב֣‎שׁוֹפָר הוֹלֵ֣ךְ‎
Shofar holech
Mahpachב֤‎‏(שׁוֹפָר) מְהֻפָּ֤ךְ‎
(Shofar) mehuppach
Dargaב֧‎דַּרְגָּ֧א‎
Ddarggá
Kadmaב֨‎אַזְלָ֨א or קַדְמָ֨א‎
Azla or Qadma[18]
Telisha ketanaב֩‎תַּלְשָׁא֩‎
Talsha
Mercha kefulaב֦‎תְּרֵי טַעֲמֵ֦י‎
Tere ta’ame
Yerach ben yomoב֪‎יֵרֶח בֶּן יוֹמ֪וֹ‎
Yeraḥ ben yomo

Spanish-Portuguese custom

זַרְקָא֮ מַקַּף־שׁוֹפָר־הוֹלֵ֣ךְ סְגוֹלְתָּא֒ פָּזֵר גָּד֡וֹל תַ֠לְשָׁא תִּ֩ילְשָׁא אַזְלָ֨א גֵּ֜רֵישׁ פָּסֵק  ׀  רָבִ֗יעַ שְׁנֵי־גֵרֵישִׁ֞ין דַּרְגָ֧א תְּבִ֛יר מַאֲרִ֥יךְ טַרְחָ֖א אַתְנָ֑ח שׁוֹפָר־מְהֻפָּ֤ךְ קַדְמָא֙ תְּרֵ֨י־קַדְמִין֙ זָקֵף־קָט֔וֹן זָקֵף־גָּד֕וֹל שַׁלְשֶׁ֓לֶת תְּרֵי־טַעֲמֵ֦י יְ֚תִיב סוֹף־פָּסֽוּק׃

Sephardic U Calendar

Receive the latest news

Get notified about new articles

Subscribe To Our Weekly Newsletter

Hello!

Login to your account

[ihc-login-popup]
Receive the latest news

Subscribe To Our Weekly Newsletter

Get notified about new articles